Grusendorf v Oklahoma City, 816 F. 2d 539 (U.S. Court of Appeals for Essay

Grusendorf v Oklahoma City, 816 F. 2d 539 (U.S. Court of Appeals for the Tenth Circuit 1987) - Essay Example The Supreme Court observed that only personal rights that can be deemed important in the concept of ordered liberty are included in this guarantee of personal liberty( Ducat, 2009).The Court outlined the current reach of these freedoms as embracing personal decisions relating to marriage, procreation, contraception, family relationships, child rearing and education. The defendant argues out that the law used to judge him was not applicable and did not match with his case (The federal reporter, 1987). To resolve the issue of whether or not Grusendorf’s rights of liberty or privacy were violated by the non-smoking regulation, it is instructive to study the Supreme Courts approach in Kelley v. Johnson. The case is similar as this one though the plaintiff there was a police officer rather than a firefighter and claimed a fourteenth amendment right to grow a beard rather than a right to smoke a cigarette (Bureau of National Affairs , 1995). A review of the record suggests that the district court found the defendants disputes influential. The defendants moved for an award of attorneys fees and submitted briefs in support of it, together with affidavits from their attorneys detailing their fees. Bowers v. Hardwick said that the federal courts should not take an expansive view of their authority to discover new fundamental

Social media for business communication Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1750 words

Social media for business communication - Essay Example This year the amount generated on the single day is $816 million becoming the heaviest online sales volume received in a single day (Diers, 2012, p. 23). The overall U.S. retail e-commerce spending for the month has increased by 15 percent. There is greater access to online shopping on Cyber Monday. This is a marketing term developed in 2005 by online retailers that define the increase of online shopping activities on Monday. Approximately 50 million Americans visited online retail sites on a black Friday representing a 35 percent increase from the previous year. The number of customers accessing the top five retail sites namely: Amazon, Walmart, BestBuy, Target, and Apple increased by double digits. This result shows that multichannel retailers recorded strong growth in visitors’ access. The increased use of online retailing has greater marketing implications to marketing principles. The need for change in the marketing strategy to absorb the increasing online visitors is ess ential for any firm because it leads to greater sales volume. The success for any company lately is based on the focus on the customer and commitment to market change. Globalization affects marketing in a drastic way by affecting marketing. Use of World Wide Web in marketing and online shopping is the next revolution. The data obtained for visitors to the online sites depict the success attainable by venturing in it. Consequently, the need for strategizing and formulating of online strategy in ensuring increase in sales volume is essential. Product innovation is powered by the consumers. Therefore, marketing of the products must ensure correct feedback is obtained from consumers to facilitate understanding of new product development. Driven by the need of simplicity, consumers need must be catered for. For instance, online shopping is a product

Differentiating Between Services and Goods Marketing Essay

Differentiating Between Services and Goods Marketing - Essay Example tics of services, to wit: (1) intangible, (2) inseparability in terms of delivery and consumption, (3) heterogeneous in kind, and (4) perishable as it cannot be saved, stored, or returned. Having delineated services, goods naturally are services’ antithesis, meaning, they are tangible, are distinctly separate in kind, and can be stored, saved, and returned as needed. The intangibility of services simply describes their quality of not being able to touch and thus cannot be evaluated in terms of its physical availability prior to purchase. Services are inseparable that the organization offering it needs the assistance of a customer representative as contact to provide explanation and detailed information on the offered service. Likewise, the characteristic of inseparability takes into account its inability to cater to the specific needs of the customer. Services are also considered heterogeneous in kind since they are highly variable with dissimilar parts or elements. Finally, the perishability characteristic of services implies that they can not be stored, saved, or returned. The fast pace of technological developments in the last century drastically influenced diverse facets of customer service. With the predominance of business organizations using the internet, more organizations have resorted to a mobile workforce where customers’ needs are being serviced by electronic means. As technological improvements continue, more service features are offered through the internet, through virtual teams, teleconferencing, and the like. The benefits of technology are: unlimited time to access service providers regardless of location of the customers, queuing time is eliminated, more secure in terms of doing business at the convenience of one’s home. On the other hand, technology has totally eradicated the concept of direct reciprocity in soliciting immediate response to inquiries and transactions. Also the element of differences in time across the globe could delay

Structural characteristics of a marketing orientated business

Structural characteristics of a marketing orientated business There are many definitions of marketing. The better definitions are focused upon customer orientation and satisfaction of customer needs. Marketing is the social process by which individuals and groups obtain what they need and want through creating and exchanging products and value with others Marketing is the management process that identifies, anticipates and satisfies customer requirements profitably The Chartered Institute of Marketing (CIM). The CIM definition (in common with Barwells definition of the marketing concept) looks not only at identifying customer needs, but also satisfying them (short-term) and anticipating them in the future (long-term retention). The right product, in the right place, at the right time, at the right price Adcock. This is a snappy and realistic definition that uses McCarthys Four Ps. Marketing is essentially about marshalling the resources of an organization so that they meet the changing needs of the customer on whom the organization depends Palmer. This is a more recent and very realistic definition that looks at matching capabilities with needs. Marketing is the process whereby society, to supply its consumption needs, evolves distributive systems composed of participants, who, interacting under constraints technical (economic) and ethical (social) create the transactions or flows which resolve market separations and result in exchange and consumption. Bartles. Question 1. Enlighten the company on the marketing concept and process, to include a) characteristics of marketing oriented company including structure and culture, b) explain the various elements of the marketing concept, c) access the benefits and costs of a marketing approach. Answer: Structural characteristics of a marketing-orientated business A business that has a marketing orientation sees the needs of customers and consumers as vital. As it develops and markets products to meet those demands, certain structural characteristics become apparent in the business. Structure: Every organization made up of more than one person will need some form of organizational structure. An organizational chart shows the way in which the chain of command works within the organization. The way in which a company is organised can be illustrated for a packaging company. The company will be owned by shareholders that choose directors to look after their interests. The directors then appoint managers to run the business on a day-to-day basis There are different kinds of organizational structure. The most common organizational structure are: -tall -flat Culture: The culture within the organization is known as corporate culture. A market oriented company like Paper Chase Ltd, will have to develop an attitude and way of doing things such that the whole organization embraces the concept that the customers are the key to the companys success and their wants and needs should be satisfied at all times. A corporate culture towards customer orientation and satisfaction should involve providing prompt valuable service. The Marketing Concept The marketing concept is the philosophy that firms should analyze the needs of their customers and then make decisions to satisfy those needs, better than the competition. Today most firms have adopted the marketing concept, but this has not always been the case. The marketing concept has 3 key elements. A customer orientation The customer is always right when they believe they are right.   They may be dead wrong.     But if by their understanding of the situation they believe they are right, then you need to acknowledge their belief.   Only after you have honored that belief and acknowledged that it can you begin to present a different way of looking at the situation.   That takes time and effort.   Seldom is it worth skipping that process An integrated company effort The all structure of the organization must work together to fulfil customers needs and wants. If any section of the organization fails to meet the requirements of the customer, it will result in lost opportunities or dissatisfied customers. A profit-goal rather than just a sales-goal Every company want more profit. This is the one another concept. On the othe hand customers want good product in best price. That means both wants to be satisfied. This satisfaction may well be the result of negotiation where the customer has accepted on alternative product or organization has had to accept lower profit. But they (Both) must be satisfied with the exchange. Otherwise, it will not be marketing. Benefits of Strategic Interactive Marketing * More affluent customers: Those customers that acquire the various interactive technologies are more affluent and value their time more highly. They will pay for responsive service and for having their particular needs met. * Accurately targeting promotions: Personalized and animated illustrations could be electronically delivered regularly or on special occasions (e.g. birthdays, anniversaries, car renewal). * Higher sales conversions through raising customer confidence, and inducing buy-in: Complex offering, whereby a number of different product benefits are inter-linked, could more easily be comprehended through graphics and animation. Using interactive software, including simulation techniques, the customer is able to involve themselves in the development and exploration of various options and see real life illustrations. * Product Awareness: Customer (or sales representative) can have access comprehensive product information to address a wide range of needs (one-stop shopping). Lower Costs * Distribution and sales costs are much lower (see the Booz-Allen Hamilton example banking transaction costs). There are no sales persons to employ, no expensive premises, and customers even perform the data entry! * Servicing costs: Besides the obvious e-mail type links to customer services, customers could directly view or enquire on their product portfolio. * Promotional costs: Electronic delivery is substantially lower, especially when media rich formats are involved. When products or services change, there are no wasted brochures etc * Product retention: Customer (or sales representative) can have access comprehensive product information. In the case of investment products it is imperative that correct advice is given in order to comply with the Financial Services Act. Market Exploitation * Market responsiveness: In response to competitor actions or legislation, etc., changes can be quickly made to products and services and then distributed to customers and suppliers. * Cross-selling: By linking into other companys delivery medium, one companys products can be cross-sold to another, and the linking reciprocated. * Differentiation: A go-ahead insurer has the ability to present a lively and innovative image and to break away from the traditionally stuffy image of the insurance industry. Promotion * Promotion needs to direct customers to different access points according to their capability and inclination to design their own product or service. See Design. Design * Products and services need to be design and made available at a component level under construction together with business rules under construction that define the possible combinations and limits. * Quite often there will be a base (or core) component to which further components are added. * Starter products and services of pre-built components will be available to help customers into the design process. * Product information needs to be available at the component level as well as for any base product. Pricing * Products and services need pricing at a component level and to take into account the distribution method (customer self service, agent or sales person, face to face, via the telephone or the Internet, etc.). Production * Production systems need to assemble the components according to the unique customer design. * A detailed record of the product or service will need to be kept so that it can later be serviced or amend (see Servicing). Servicing * Profiles of individual customer products as well as profiles of the individual customers need to be available to support staff and the customer throughout the life of the product or service. Question 2. Explore the concepts of segmentation, targeting and positioning with reference to Paper Chase Ltd a) Identify and explain the macro and micro environment influencing Paper Chase, b) propose segmentation criteria for any 2 products from the brain storming sessions c) which markets Paper Chase should target and factors influencing their choice d) How buyer behaviour affects the marketing of Paper Chase products. Answer: Marketing environment The term marketing environment relates to all of the factors (whether internal, external, direct or indirect) that affects a firms marketing decision-making or planning and is subject of the marketing research. A firms marketing environment consists of two main areas, which are: Macro environment On the macro environment a firm holds only little control. It consists of a variety of external factors that manifest on a large (or macro) scale. These are typically economic, social, political or technological phenomena. A common method of assessing a firms macro-environment is via a PESTLE (Political, Economic, Social, Technological, Legal, and Ecological) analysis. Within a PESTLE analysis, a firm would analyze national political issues, culture and climate, key macroeconomic conditions, health and indicators (such as economic growth, inflation, unemployment, etc.), social trends/attitudes, and the nature of technologys impact on its society and the business processes within the society. Micro environment A firm holds a greater amount (though not necessarily total) control of the micro environment. It comprises factors pertinent to the firm itself, or stakeholders closely connected with the firm or company. A firms micro environment typically spans: * Customers/consumers * Employees * Suppliers * The Media By contrast to the macro environment, an organization holds a greater degree of control over these factors. Market segmentation Market segmentation pertains to the division of a market of consumers into persons with similar needs and wants. As an example, if using Kelloggs cereals in this instance, Frosties are marketed to children. Crunchy Nut Cornflakes are marketed to adults. Both goods aforementioned denote two products which are marketed to two distinct groups of persons, both with like needs, traits, and wants. The purpose for market segmentation is conducted for two main issues. First, a segmentation allows a better allocation of a firms finite resources. A firm only possesses a certain amount of resources. Accordingly, it must make choices (and appreciate the related costs) in servicing specific groups of consumers. Furthermore the diversified tastes of the contemporary Western consumers can be served better. Market segmentation can be defined in terms of the STP acronym, meaning Segment, Target and Position. Segment Segmentation involves the initial splitting up of consumers into persons of like needs/wants/tastes. Four commonly used criteria are used for segmentation, which include: * Geographical (e.g. country, region, city, town, etc.) * Psychographic (i.e. personality traits or character traits which influence consumer behavior) * Demographic (e.g. age, gender, socio-economic class, etc.) * Behavioural (e.g. brand loyalty, usage rate, etc.) The two products, from the brain storming session, selected for criteria Paper Chase Ltd are: Tea Tea Cup Tea and Tea Cup has three different Segment Tea Cup Large Medium Small Tea Milk Tea Green Tea Red Tea Target Once a segment has been identified, a firm must ascertain whether the segment is beneficial for them to service. The DAMP acronym, meaning Discernible, Accessible, Measurable and Profitable, are used as criteria to gauge the viability of a target market. DAMP is explained in further detail below: * Discernable How a segment can be differentiated from other segments. * Accessible How a segment can be accessed via Marketing Communications produced by a firm. * Measurable Can the segment be quantified and its size determined? * Profitable Can a sufficient return on investment be attained from a segments servicing? The next step in the targeting process is the level of differentiation involved in a segment serving. Three modes of differentiation exist, which are commonly applied by firms. These are: * Undifferentiated Where a company produces a like product for all of a market segment. * Differentiated In which a firm produced slight modifications of a product within a segment. * Niche In which an organization forges a product to satisfy a specialized target market. Position Positioning concern how to positions a product in the mind of consumers. A firm often performs this by producing a perceptual map, which denotes products produced in its industry according to how consumers perceive their price and quality. From a products placing on the map, a firm would tailor its marketing communications to suit meld with the products perception among consumers. Buying behaviour A marketing firm, in the course of its operations, must ascertain the nature of buying behaviour, if it is to market properly its product. In order to entice and persuade a consumer to buy a product, the psychological/behavioural process of how a given product is purchased. Buying behaviour consists of two prime strands, namely being consumer (B2C) behaviour and organizational/industrial behavior (B2B). B2C buying behaviour This mode of behaviour concerns consumers, in the purchase of a given product. The B2C buying process is as thus: * Need/want recognition * Information search * Search for alternatives (to satisfy need/want) * Purchase decision * Post-purchase evaluation As an example, if one pictures a pair of sneakers, the desire for a pair of sneakers would be followed by an information search on available types/brands. This may include perusing media outlets, but most commonly consists of information gathered from family and friends. If the information search is insufficient, the consumer may search for alternative means to satisfy the need/want. In this case, this may be buying leather shoes, sandals, etc. The purchase decision is then made, in which the consumer actually buys the product. Question 3. Identify and analyse the individual elements of Paper Chase marketing, to include product, price, promotion, place, people, process and physical evidence. Answer: Marketing mix In the early 1960s, Professor Neil Borden at Harvard Business School identified a number of company performance actions that can influence the consumer decision to purchase goods or services. Borden suggested that all those actions of the company represented a Marketing Mix. Professor E. Jerome McCarthy, at the Michigan State University in the early 1960s, suggested that the Marketing Mix contained 4 elements product, price, place and promotion. Product The product aspects of marketing deal with the specifications of the actual goods or services, and how it relates to the end-users needs and wants. The scope of a product generally includes supporting elements such as warranties, guarantees, and support. Pricing This refers to the process of setting a price for a product, including discounts. The price need not be monetary; it can simply be what is exchanged for the product or services, e.g. time, energy, or attention. Methods of setting prices optimally are in the domain of pricing science. A number of modes of pricing techniques exist, which span: * Elasticities (whether Price Elasticity of Demand, Cross Elasticity of Demand, or Income Elasticity of Demand) * Market skimming pricing * Market penetration pricing Elasticitys are a microeconomic concept, which gauges how elastic demand is for a given good/service. In a marketing context, its usefulness relates to the suitable level at which a product can be priced, in accordance with price, a products complements and substitutes, and the level of income a consumer possesses. Market skimming pertains to firm releasing a good in a first to market scenario. As an example, picture a company which releases a new type of personal media playing system. It may set the good at an initially high level, but reduce it over time, once the level of demand gradually rises. Market skimming is best operable within a first to market scenario, since there would be few competitors within the companys industry. Market penetration concerns pricing policies for late entrants to a market. Placement (or distribution) This refers to how the product gets to the customer; for example, point-of-sale placement or retailing. This third P has also sometimes been called Place, referring to the channel by which a product or service is sold (e.g. online vs. retail), which geographic region or industry, to which segment (young adults, families, business people), etc. also referring to how the environment in which the product is sold in can affect sales. Promotion This includes advertising, sales promotion, including promotional education, publicity, and personal selling. Branding refers to the various methods of promoting the product, brand, or company. These four elements are often referred to as the marketing mix, [5] which a marketer can use to craft a marketing plan. The four Ps model is most useful when marketing low value consumer products. Industrial products, services, high value consumer products require adjustments to this model. Services marketing must account for the unique nature of services. In order to recognize the different aspects of selling services, as opposed to Products, a further three Ps were added to make a range of Seven Ps for service industries: * Process the way, in which orders are handled, customers are satisfied and the service is delivered. * Physical Evidence is tangible evidence of the service customers will receive (for example a holiday brochure). * People the people meeting and dealing with the customers. As markets have become more satisfied, the 7 Ps have become relevant to those companies selling products, as well as those solely involved with services: customers now differentiate between sellers of goods by the service they receive in the process from the people involved Question 4. Select any 2 products from the brain storming session and elaborate on the application of different marketing mix (to include extended marketing mix elements) to different markets segments and context. Briefly discuss the areas that need consideration, should Paper Chase consider foreign expansion in the future. Answer: Marketing mix for Coffee: Product: Paper Chase Ltd have different kind of Coffee for customers Price: Price are very reasonable for Coffee. So that people can purchase easily Promotion: This company give different kind of advertisement. Place: Paper Chase always find new and comfortable places for the customer. Marketing mix for Clock Product: This company has different type of clock for the customers. Price: Price of the clock always are in customer budget. So that customer can purchase easily. Place: Paper Chase should seek a comfortable place. The atmosphere should be nice. Promotion:Paper Chase provides different kind of promotion. Like advertising, discount, coupon etc. Mr. Smith will think what types of product need for customer. Then those products are supply for the customer. They need widely marketing and more communicate with the customer. Then customer will be attractive for product line or company. Paper chase provide special supply some product. As for example Pens with company logos because whose company ordered the product their company logo will be printed pens body.

Charter Schools in Arkansas :: Teaching Education

Charter Schools in Arkansas Charter Schools Introduction charter schools have become a common site in many states today. Currently, there are over 24 states with charter schools established and many other states have passed legislation for the creation of charter schools. Arkansas passed legislation in 1996 that would allow for the creation of charter schools in the state. Governor Mike Huckabee made it a priority in his educational agenda in 1997 to allow a pilot program of 15 schools to be implemented statewide (Cohen, 1998). Even though Governor Huckabee and legislation is supporting this idea, there have been no successful applications so far. Charter applicants seek approval of the state department of education for the charter school but have meet with resistance so far. Fourche Valley School District in Yell County was the first to apply for charter school status in 1996, but was quickly turned down. The school has yet to reapply for the status. No other school districts in the state have attempted to file as of yet. Statement of the Problem. What is a charter school and what are the financial implications of creating a charter school? Review of Literature Charter schools are public schools but with a twist. They are created and operated by the educators, parents, community leaders, and others. The school must be sponsored by a designated local or state educational organization that monitors the school's progress, but that is as far as it goes. The school is free from the traditional bureaucratic red tape and policy makers from the state level. The school is basically governed at the local level. Some people view them as a local business meeting the demands of the community. The product they produce are educated children. If the quality of service is not being meet, the school answers to the community. This concept has high levels of accountability being placed on the school. As successful businesses know, if you produce a high quality product, the business will grow and succeed, if you produce anything less, you go out of business. Opening a charter school also brings with it the ability to choose the school where you want your children to go. The center for education reform has taken a strong view on the subject of choice with charter schools. They believe that if the students choose to attend a certain school and the teachers choose to teach at a certain school, then the chances of success are more likely because both have chosen to be there (Center for education reform, 1999).

Location Decisions Essay

Deciding on the best location for a new business or relocating an existing one is often crucial to its success. Location decisions choosing new sites for expansion or relocation of the business are some of the most important decisions made by management teams. Selecting the best site will have a significant effect on many departments of the business and, ultimately, on the profitability and chances of success of the whole firm. Location decisions have three key characteristics: They are strategic in nature as they are long term and have an impact on the whole business. †¢They are difficult to reverse if an error of judgment is made due to the costs of relocation. †¢They are taken at the highest management levels and are not delegated to subordinates. An ‘optimal’ location decision is one that selects the best site for expansion of the business or for its relocation, given current information. This best site should maximize the long-term profits of the business. The optimal site is nearly always a compromise between conflicting benefits and drawbacks. For example: †¢A well-positioned high-street shop will have the potential for high sales but will have higher rental charges than a similar sized shop out of town. †¢A factory location which is cheap to purchase due to its distance from major towns might have problems recruiting staff due to lack of a large and trained working population. So an optimal location is likely to be a compromise one that balances: †¢high fixed costs of the site and buildings with convenience for customers and potential sales revenue †¢the low costs of a remote site with limited supply of suitably qualified labor †¢quantitative factors with qualitative ones Factors influencing location decisions †¢Site and other capital costs such as building or shop-fitting costs These vary greatly from region to region within a country and between countries. The best office and retail sites may be so expensive that the cost of them is beyond the resources of all but the largest companies. The cost of building on a Greenfield site one that has never previously been developed must be compared with the costs of adapting existing buildings on a developed site. †¢Labor costs The relative importance of these as a locational factor depends on whether the business is capital or labor intensive. An insurance company call center will need many staff, but the labor costs of a nuclear power station will be a very small proportion of its total costs. The attraction of much lower wage rates overseas has encouraged many European businesses to set up operations in other countries – for example, bank and Insurance Company call centers. †¢Transport costs Businesses that use heavy and bulky raw materials such as steel making will incur high transport costs if suppliers are at a great distance from the steel plant. Goods that increase in bulk during production will, traditionally, reduce transport costs by locating close to the market.

Information system development life cycle models Essay

Health information managers must understand the components of information systems and how information systems affect the organization, individuals within the organization, and interested publics outside the organization. Information systems provide opportunities to improve internal operations, create competitive advantage in the marketplace, improve patient-care delivery, enhance research, and provide better service. Information system risk occurs when the systems are not well integrated, are poorly managed, or do not support the goals of the organization. In order to exploit information system opportunities and minimize threats and risks, a thorough understanding of information system components and how these relate to the organization is necessary. An information system is composed of a group of components (people, work processes, data, and information technologies) that interact through defined relationships to accomplish a goal. Information systems must be able to adapt to environmental change. A good example of a health-related information system is an order entry system. The goal of the system is to process physician orders. The system is composed of a group of components including people (nurses, physicians, unit secretaries, laboratory personnel), data, work processes, and information technologies. Each of these components interacts through defined relationships. fails to accommodate the environment or if the interactions among its component parts fail, the system becomes nonfunctional and disintegrates. Thus, a system must be composed of a group of components that: ï‚ · Interact through defined relationships ï‚ · Work toward accomplishing a goal ï‚ · Self-adapt and respond to environmental changes Figure 2-1 provides an example of the relationship of these characteristics. An information system is composed of a group of components (people, work processes, data, and information technologies) that interact through defined relationships to accomplish a goal. Information systems must be able to adapt to environmental change. A good example of a health-related information system is an order entry system. The goal of the system is to  process physician orders. The system is composed of a group of components including people (nurses, physicians, unit secretaries, laboratory personnel), data, work processes, and information technologies. Each of these components interacts through defined relationships The peoples enter orders in a predefined way through a data entry terminal (hardware) and through interaction with software. Through the predefined interactions between the hardware and software, the order is processed. The order entry system is self-adapting and able to accommodate environmental changes such as order volume. The example depicted in Figure 2-2 demonstrates the characteristics of a system as applied to an information system: component parts working in predefined relationships that can self-adapt to environmental changes to accomplish a common goal. As the bidirectional arrows depict in Figure 2-2, at any given time there is a potential three-way interaction between all system components. People interact or are affected by work practices, data, and information technologies. Work practices affect people and may be impacted by data availability and information technologies. Information technologies may affect work practices, people, and the input, processing, or dissemination of data. Thus, we see that information components are highly interrelated. Recognizing these interrelationships is very important, since a problem with one component will likely adversely impact all other components within an information system. When information system problems arise, it is crucial that all information system components and their relationships be examined System Elements Systems have three principal elements: inputs, processing mechanisms, and outputs. Figure 2-3 depicts their simple relationship. In the order entry example given previously, inputs include physician orders such as laboratory, radiology, or pharmacy orders that are entered in a computer terminal on the patient-care unit. The orders are subjected to several processing mechanisms that check their consistency and completeness before they are routed to the appropriate department. The output of the system is a requisition for a specific type of test, procedure, or pharmaceutical. In addition to inputs, processes, and outputs, most systems also have a  feedback loop. Feedback provided by the system influences future inputs. In the order entry example, feedback regarding nonavailability of an ordered drug in the pharmacy department inventory might be provided to the physician. In this case, the system might suggest what alternatives or substitutes are available Information System Components All definitions of an information system must embody the essence of the four system characteristics that were previously presented. Thus, an information system is a group of interrelated and self-adapting components working through defined relationships to collect, process, and disseminate data and information for accomplishment of specific organizational goals. The components of an information system should be broadly interpreted. For example, information system components should be viewed to include people, work procedures, data, and information technologies (Alter, 1992). Although organizational goals may not be specifically included in the components of an information system, they must be viewed as the driving force for the development, design, implementation, and evaluation of information systems. Each information system must be evaluated in terms of its contribution to meeting the goals of the organization Information System Types In Chapter 2, six types of information systems are discussed: transaction processing systems (TPS), management information systems (MIS), decision support systems (DSS), executive information systems (EIS), expert systems (ES), and office automation systems (OAS). Early systems in health care were principally transaction processing systems. These systems automated operational functions such as accounting, payroll, inventory, and admission/discharge systems. Later, other transaction systems, such as order entry, were added to the capabilities. Management information systems emerged in the late 1970s and gradually became more sophisticated during the 1980s. One factor influencing the growth of MIS during this period was the introduction of the national prospective payment (diagnostic-related groups or DRGs) system for Medicare patients. Because of DRG implementation, hospitals needed information systems that provided better filtered and formatted data for making managerial and strategic decisions. The  implementation of DRGs also revealed the weaknesses of current information systems in linking and integrating data. Weaknesses associated with the proliferation of stand-alone systems and the historical emphasis on financial systems became magnified during the 1980s coiera When the same kind of decision is made on a regular basis, it will require access to the same kind of data and may use the same knowledge. In these circumstances, one can develop a regular process or information system to accomplish the task. An information system could thus be anything from the routine way in which a clinician records patient details in a pocket notebook, the way a triage nurse assesses patients on arrival in an emergency department, through to a complex computer-based system that regulates payments for healthcare services. An information system is distinguished from other systems by its components, which include data and models. Recall from the last chapter that there are several different kinds of information model, including databases and knowledge bases. These different information components can be put together to create an information system. For example, consider a calculator that can store data and equations in its memory. The data store is the calculator’s database, and the equation store is its knowledge base. The input to the calculator becomes the equation to be solved, as well as the values of data to plug into the equation. The database communicates with the knowledge base using a simple communication channel within the device, and the output of the system is the value for the solved equation (Figure 3.6). There are many potential internal components that could be included within an information system, including a database, a knowledge base, an ontology, and decision procedures or rules of inference. The different components of an information system are connected together with input/output channels, which allow data to be shifted between the components as needed. A patient record system is a more complex example of an information system. Its purpose is to record data about particular patients in some formalized fashion to assist in the control Wager2009  An information system (IS) is an arrangement of information (data), processes, people, and information technology that interact to collect, process, store, and provide as output the information needed to support the organization (Whitten & Bentley, 2005). Note that information technology is a component of every information system. Information technology is a contemporary term that describes the combination of computer technology (hardware and software) with data and telecommunications technology (data, image, and voice networks). Often in current management literature the terms information system and information technology are used interchangeably. 6.1.1 What Is a System?shortliffe Until now, we have referred informally to health information systems and computer systems. What do we mean when we refer to a system? In the most general sense, a system is an organized set of procedures for accomplishing a task. It is described in terms of (1) the problem to be solved; (2) the data and knowledge required to address the problem; and (3) the internal process for transforming the available input into the desired output (Figure 6.1). When we talk about systems in this book, we usually mean computer-based (or just computer) systems. A computer system combines both manual and automated processes; people and machines work in concert to manage and use information. A computer system has these components: ââ€"  Hardware: The physical equipment, including processing units (e.g., the central processing unit (CPU)), data-storage devices, comunication equipment, terminals, and printers ââ€"  Software: The computer programs that direct the hardware to carry out the automated processes—i.e., to respond to user requests and schedules, to process input data, to store some data for long periods, and to communicate informative results to the users; at times the software will prompt the users to perform manual processes System Design and Engineering in Health Care 235 ââ€"  Customers: The users who interact with the software and hardware of the system, issue requests, and use the results or forward them to others; there will be other users who are concerned with providing input, system operations, backup, and maintenance The role of a computer is, broadly speaking, the conversion of data into information. Every piece of data must be supplied by a person, by another computer system, or by data collection  equipment, as seen in patient monitoring (see Chapter 17). Information that is output is delivered to health care professionals or becomes input to another computer system. In other words, a medical computer system is a module within the overall health care delivery system. The overall health care system not only determines the need for the computer system (e.g., which data must be processed and which reports must be generated) but also the requirements for the system’s operation (e.g., the degree of reliability and responsiveness to requests for information). Acquisition and operation of a computer system has implications for the organization of an institution. Who controls the information? Who is responsible for the accuracy of the data? How will the system be financed? The installation of a computer system has sociological consequences as well. The introduction of a new system alters the work routines of health care workers. Furthermore, it may affect the traditional roles of health care workers and the existing relationships among groups of individuals—e.g., between physicians and nurses, between nurses and patients, and between physicians and patients. Important ethical and legal questions that arise include the confidentiality of patient information, the appropriate role of computers in patient care (especially in medical decision making), and the responsibility of developers and users for ensuring the correct operation of the system (see Chapter 10). Although the technical challenges in system development must be met, organizational factors are crucial determinants of the success of a computer system within the institution. These factors can differ greatly among institutions and can make the transfer of a well-functioning system to another site difficult. 6.1.2 Functions of a Computer System Computers have been used in every aspect of health care delivery, from the simple processing of business data, to the collection and interpretation of physiological data, to the education of physicians and nurses. Each chapter in Unit II of this book describes an important area for the application of computers in biomedicine. The unique characteristics of each problem area create special requirements for system builders to address. The motivation  for investing in these applications, however, is the computer’s ability to help health professionals in some aspect of information management. We identify eight topics that define the range of basic functions that may be provided by medical computer systems: 1. Data acquisition and presentation 2. Record keeping and access 3. Communication and integration of information 4. Surveillance 5. Information storage and retrieval 6. Data analysis 7. Decision support 8. Education .