Neurodegenerative Diseases: Systems, Causes and Treatments

Neurodegenerative Diseases: Systems, Causes and Treatments Simon Mendy Compare the symptoms, causes and available or future treatments for Motor Neuron Disease, Spinal Muscular Atrophy and Myasthenia Gravis. Neurodegenerative diseases are hereditary (inherited) and sporadic (acquired during a person’s life) conditions caused by progressive nervous system dysfunction (http://ec.europa.eu/health/major_chronic_diseases/diseases/brain_neurological/index_en.htm). Motor neuron disease and Spinal Muscular Atrophy (shrink) are neurodegenerative conditions that arise due to motor neurons dysfunction and Myasthenia Gravis is an autoimmune neurodegenerative disorder. Motor neuron disease is caused by damage to motor neurons; Spinal muscular atrophy is due to deterioration of the motor neurons connecting the brain and spinal cord; Myasthenia gravis is an autoimmune condition that arises due to the damage or blocking of muscle receptors by antibodies accidently produced by the immune system. All three disorders result in weakness, making there diagnosis very hard, because weakness is a very common symptom of many conditions. However, possibilities are ruled out depending on the age of the pers on affected. If someone exhibiting muscle weakness is 1 year old, it is more likely that the person has SMA than the MG or MND, because SMA generally affects children ranging from less than six months to around the age of three, whereas MND is common in teenagers and young adults, and MG normally affects middle aged adults. Motor neurone disease is a unique condition of unknown aetiology that occurs when motor neurons (specialist nerve cells in the brain and spinal cord that relay signals from the brain to the muscles) become damaged and ultimately stop working (http://www.nhs.uk/conditions/Motor-neurone-disease/Pages/Introduction.aspx). This causes the muscles that the damage nerves supply to gradually lose strength, usually with wasting of muscles. It is unclear exactly what causes motor neurons to stop working, but, there is not thought to be a link with factors like lifestyle, race and diet. In a small number of cases (about 5%), there is a family history of either motor neuron disease or a related condition known as frontotemporal dementia. However, there is no single test to diagnose MND and diagnosis is solely based on the opinion of a neurologist, on the basis of the symptoms observed and a physical examination. In some cases a specialised test is needed to rule out other possible conditions. Symptoms of motor neurone disease begin gradually over a period of weeks and months, generally only on one side of the body at the beginning, and gradually get worse with time. Symptoms normally include having clumsy fingers or weaker grip (early signs of weakness). Other symptoms include: wasting of muscles, muscle cramps, hardships with swallowing and communication, excess saliva (difficulties swallowing saliva), and coughing after swallowing. After sometime, a person with motor neuron disease may find themselves unable to move. In a small number of cases (10-15%), motor neuron disease is associated with a type of dementia called frontotemporal dementia that can affect behaviour and personality. The main types of motor neuron disease are: amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) (accounts for 60-70% of all cases), progressive bulbar palsy (PBP), progressive muscular atrophy (PMA), and primary lateral sclerosis (PLS) (http://www.patient.co.uk/health/Motor-Neurone-Disease). Spinal muscular atrophy (SMA) is an autosomal (a chromosome that is not allosome) recessive genetic disease that causes muscle weakness and progressive loss of movement (http://www.fsma.org/FSMACommunity/understandingsma/WhatCausesSMA/). Around 1 out of every 40 people are genetic carriers of the disease (they carry the mutated gene but do not actually have SMA) (http://www.fsma.org/FSMACommunity/understandingsma/WhatCausesSMA/). Gene mutation is a permanent alteration in the DNA sequence that makes up a gene (http://ghr.nlm.nih.gov/handbook/mutationsanddisorders/genemutation). Gene mutation occurs in two different ways: they are either inherited from parents (known as hereditary mutation) or they are acquired at some time during a person’s life (known as acquired mutation). Hereditary mutations happen when mutations are present in both the egg and sperm cells. A person that has inherited this type of mutation has it present in virtually every cell in their body, throughout th eir lifetime. Acquired mutations occur in individual cells at some time during a person’s lifetime. These changes can occur due to environmental factors like ultraviolet (UV) light from the sun, chemicals, and radiation, or if a mistake is made whilst DNA copies itself during cell division (mitosis and meiosis). Acquired mutations are only inherited if they occur in sex cells. According to the National Genome Institute, almost all diseases have some kind of genetic factor. These disorders can be cause by multiple gene mutations, a mutation in a single gene, combined gene mutation and environmental factors, or by chromosome damage or mutation. Gene mutation has been identified as the cause of numerous disorders including spinal muscular atrophy (SMA), haemophilia, Tay-Sachs, sickle cell, anaemia, cystic fibrosis and some cancers (http://biology.about.com/od/basicgenetics/ss/gene-mutation.htm). The term SMA is used mainly for the most common form spinal muscular atrophy, which is caused by a genetic problem where one copy of the genetic error (mutation in autosomes) is inherited from each parent. SMA is classified into four different categories, from Type I IV. The classification of SMA depends on the age at which symptoms of the disease arise and the severity of the symptoms. Symptoms of SMA normally include problems with breathing, eating, moving and swallowing; floppy arms and legs (In children with either Type I or II SMA); twitching of the muscles in the arms, legs or tongue. Type I SMA is the most severe, it develops in babies under six months old. Type II is less severe that Type I SMA, it affects babies between the ages 6 to 18 months. Type III and Type IV are the mildest types of SMA. Type III normally affects children around 3 years old. Type IV affects adults. In the most severe cases of SMA (Types I and II), fatal respiratory problems usually develop during chi ldhood. In mild cases such as Types III and IV SMA, life expectancy is normally unaffected (http://www.nhs.uk/conditions/Spinal-muscular-atrophy/Pages/Introduction.aspx). Spinal muscular atrophy is caused by the deletion of the survival motor neuron gene 1 (SMN1) (http://www.fsma.org/FSMACommunity/understandingsma/WhatCausesSMA/). In healthy people SMN1 produces a protein known as the survival motor neuron (SMN) protein. In a person with mutated genes, the supply of this protein is absent or is significantly decreased. This results in the deterioration of the nerve cells (motor neurons) connecting the brain and spinal cord to the body’s muscles, therefore causing muscle weakness and gradual loss of movement, because the SMN protein is critical to the survival and health of motor neurons. Spinal muscular atrophy affects 1 in 6000 to 1 in 10000 people. Myasthenia gravis is a unique long-term autoimmune condition which affects the nerves and muscles, resulting in the muscles becoming weak. An autoimmune condition is caused by the immune system mistakenly attacking and destroying healthy body tissue. Ordinarily, the immune systems white blood cells protect the body from harmful substances, known as antigens. For examples: viruses, bacteria, toxins, etc. antibodies are produced as a counter measure by the immune system that destroy the antigens. In people with autoimmune disorder, the immune system has difficulty distinguishing between antigens and healthy body tissue. Due to this an immune system response that kills healthy body tissue is produced. The cause of the immune system no longer being able to distinguish between antigens and healthy body tissue is unknown at present. A theory suggests that drugs or microorganisms (like bacteria or viruses) may trigger some of these changes. In myasthenia gravis, the immune system accidental ly produces antibodies (proteins) that damage or block muscle receptor cells. This stops muscles contracting because the antibodies prevent messages being past from the nerve endings to the muscles. However, it is not understood why the immune system of some people produce antibodies that attack the muscle receptor cells. Symptoms of myasthenia gravis generally include impaired eye movement and weakness of muscles that are voluntarily controlled, therefore affecting functions such as facial expressions, eye and eye lid movement, chewing, talking and swallowing, and weakness of neck and limbs. However since weakness is a common symptom in many different diseases and conditions, diagnosis of myasthenia gravis is normally delayed or missed. Myasthenia gravis is diagnosed through Blood tests, Genetic tests and Electromyogram. In the U.S about 20 in 100,000 people are diagnosed with myasthenia gravis. Presently there is no known cure for MND, SMA, OR MG, however there are treatments that can be initiated with aims to ease symptoms to help the person feel more comfortable and have a better quality of life, and compensate for the gradual loss of bodily functions like mobility, communication, breathing and swallowing. For example, for MND, muscle relaxants can help reduce muscle stiffness; medicines such as phenytoin can treat muscle cramps; a breathing mask can help reduce shortness of breath. Right now, the only available treatment for MND that affects the progression of the disease is Riluzole, however it doesn’t stop the progression of motor neuron disease, but only slows it down by a few months (http://www.nhs.uk/conditions/Motor-neurone-disease/Pages/Introduction.aspx). With SMA, depending on the severity, treatment could involve: exercise, to prevent joint stiffness and improve range of movement and flexibility; assistive equipment such as motorised wheelchairs and walk ing frames if someone with SMA has difficulty moving; nutrition advice and feeding tubes; bracing and surgery to treat scoliosis (curvature of the spine) (http://www.nhs.uk/Conditions/Spinal-muscular-atrophy/Pages/Treatment.aspx). For patients with MG, medication such as pyridostigmine and neostigmine (less common), can prevent the breakdown of acetylcholine, an important chemical that assists the muscles in contracting (http://www.nhs.uk/Conditions/Myasthenia-gravis/Pages/Treatment.aspx). If pyridostigmine is ineffective, steroid tablets can be used to lessen the symptoms. Doctors also often prescribe azathioprine, methotrexate or mycophenolate, to suppress the immune system. Muscle strength can be improved by controlling the production of abnormal antibodies through the use immunosuppressants. In some cases of MG, surgery to remove the thymus gland (a thymectomy) may be recommended. The thymus gland is part of the immune system and is found underneath the breast bone, it is someti mes abnormal in people with MG. In numerous cases, treatment of MG substantially improves muscle weakness allowing a person with the condition to lead a comparatively normal life. Some people may experience permanent or temporally periods where symptoms stop and treatment is no longer needed. Permanent remissions occur in about a third of the people who have a thymectomy (http://www.nhs.uk/Conditions/Myasthenia-gravis/Pages/Treatment.aspx). Currently, the hope of many is that stem cells of extraneural or neural origin might be modified in vitro (i.e. transforming skin cells into induced pluripotent stem cell (iPS)) (http://www.eurostemcell.org/factsheet/motor-neurone-disease-how-could-stem-cells-help) to differentiate into motor neurons that would migrate to sites of motor neuron loss and restore the motor pathways lost in MND by forming functional connections (Boulis, 2011). The most promising cells so far that can be used for stem treatment of MND are spinal cord stem cells, which are able to produce both motor neurons and a cell call glia. Many of the proteins known as growth factors that contribute to motor neurons development are secreted by glia. There is also a possibility that non-neuronal cells such as glia can be used to prevent further damage to motor neurons and encourage repair through the production of the working version of the protein SOD1, which in some types of MND doesn’t function properly (htt p://www.eurostemcell.org/factsheet/motor-neurone-disease-how-could-stem-cells-help). Stem cell therapy also has to the potential to be used as a possible cure for SMA, MG and other neurological conditions. Gene therapy uses genes to prevent or treat a disease by introducing genetic material in cells to compensate for abnormal genes or to make a beneficial protein (MacKenzie, 2010). Gene therapy was found to be well suited as a future treatment for SMA by the Kaspar group: who described a self-complementary (sc) AAV9 vector that crosses the blood-brain barriers after systemic administration; because of scAAV9’s remarkable efficiency in central nervous system (CNS) gene transfer, after intravenous delivery in mice and other larger animals. Using this as a base, the Kaspar group along with Arthur burgees, detail the most successful rescue reported yet in a mouse model of severe SMA. This was achieved by injecting scAAV9 that is carrying SMN1, into the facial vein of mice pups on their day of birth (MacKenzie, 2010). The approach of injecting scAAV9 into mice pups, resulted in the transduction of 40% of motor neurons, and an extension of the lifespan of the mice from 2 weeks to more than 250 days, combined with almost normalised neuromuscular electrophysiology and normal motor function (MacKenzie, 2010). This preliminary data obtained in the gene therapy rescue of SMA in the mouse model, reported by the Kaspar group and Arthur Burghes (a pioneer of SMA), suggests that the same approach could be used in primates. The authors investigated systemic injection of scAAV9-GFP in a cynomolgus monkey (1 day of age). After four weeks, the magnitude of GFP in spinal motor neurons recorded was similar to that shown by the mice (MacKenzie, 2010), boding well for possible application to humans. This news, along with recent encouraging reports of AAV gene therapy of retinal disease, supports the further rehabilitation of gene therapy as a credible therapeutic alternative for neurological diseases, including MG, SMA and MND. The stage seems set: with seemingly untreatable disorders of unknown pathogenesis; an unknown presymptomatic way of diagnosis; and, the small possibility of a cure through gene therapy and stem cell therapy, which are by far the best hopes, not only for MND, SMA and MG, but also for other neurological diseases. However, gene therapy and stem cell therapy are subject to a lot of public disagreement. For gene therapy this is due to fact that, gene therapy targeted at germ cells (egg and sperm cells), (known as germline gene therapy) could be pass on to next generations. Whilst it spares a family and their future generations from a specific genetic disorder, there’s a possibility it could affect the development of a fetus in unexpected ways or have yet unknown long-term side effects (http://ghr.nlm.nih.gov/handbook/therapy/ethics). Because the people who are going to be affected are not yet born, they are unable to choose whether to have the treatment, resulting in big debates on e whether germline gene therapy should be used. Other ethical concerns involve negative impacts on what society thinks is â€Å"normal†, and discrimination toward those with the â€Å"undesirable traits† that arise from using gene therapy as a form â€Å"modification† for unwanted traits or to make â€Å"genetic improvements†. The idea of stem cell therapy is also controversial. Whilst it can used for the treatment of many diseases including neurological ones, there are ethical problems involving how it is obtained. For example, stem cells obtained from the embryo, because the embryo is viewed as a potential person. Due to this, taking stem cells from an embryo is considered to be murder, however, it’s argued that, an early embryo that hasn’t be implanted into the uterus doesn’t have properties we associate with being a person, and therefore can and should be used for the benefit of patients (who are persons). Bibliography: http://ec.europa.eu/health/major_chronic_diseases/diseases/brain_neurological/index_en.htm (20/07/2014) http://www.nhs.uk/conditions/Motor-neurone-disease/Pages/Introduction.aspx (20/07/2014) http://www.patient.co.uk/health/Motor-Neurone-Disease (20/07/2014) http://www.fsma.org/FSMACommunity/understandingsma/WhatCausesSMA/ (04/07/2014) http://ghr.nlm.nih.gov/handbook/mutationsanddisorders/genemutation (20/06/2014) http://biology.about.com/od/basicgenetics/ss/gene-mutation.htm (21/06/2014) http://www.nhs.uk/conditions/Spinal-muscular-atrophy/Pages/Introduction.aspx (20/07/2014) http://www.nhs.uk/Conditions/Spinal-muscular-atrophy/Pages/Treatment.aspx (04/07/2014) http://www.nhs.uk/Conditions/Myasthenia-gravis/Pages/Treatment.aspx (21/07/2014) http://www.eurostemcell.org/factsheet/motor-neurone-disease-how-could-stem-cells-help (05/07/2014) Nicholas M. Boulis. (2011). Gene Therapy for Motor Neuron Disease.Gene Vector Design and Application to Treat Nervous System Disorders. 33 (3), p41-49 Alex MacKenzie. (2010). A severe inherited neuromuscular disease is corrected in mice by intravenous gene delivery.Gene therapy for spinal muscular atrophy. 28 (3), 235-237 http://ghr.nlm.nih.gov/handbook/therapy/genetherapy, (27/06/2014) http://ghr.nlm.nih.gov/handbook/therapy/ethics, (28/06/2014) http://ghr.nlm.nih.gov/handbook/therapy/procedures, (27/06/2014)

My Father Birthday

My father birthday It’s my habit to revise my homework every morning. This was became my grandmother used to wake me up since I was in primary school. This had helped me a lot in improving my school result and I wanted to keep it up and score good result in my spm Yesterday I also woke up early but not to revise my homework because the day was my father birthday. We all son decided to open a party for my father, but we did not know how to prepare a surprise party as I had no experience in buying things in market and cook my father favourite food. So we decided to ask my neighbour Jun Hen brother for helping. He is a kind heart person as he always help me when I need his for helping. When he knew I needed his helped to prepare party, he didn’t refuse and agree to help immediately. I was very happy because he also helped me to cook the dishes. We didn’t spend much time in the market because we needed a lot of time to prepare after my father came back from work. We cooked a lot of dishes such as sweet sour fish, fried chicken, curry, dessert and of cause a delicious cake. After cooking we also decorated my home, my whole family members helped me to hang balloons and ribbons Approximately 5pm we finish preparing and waiting my father back home.. My father would reach home at 6 pm sharp. before 6 pm we all hid behind the door to give him a big surprise as he didn’t know we were celebrating for his this special day. He was terrified when he entered the house, he could not believe that we still remembered his birthday and what he liked to eat. After enjoying the meal we had a karaoke session. We sang a lot of English song and my sister took a lot of photographs with my father. After that we played some games, my parents also joined in. I felt happy as I had never seen this such a long time. We whole family members also sang the birthday song for my father and gave him a big present that was a â€Å"kiss†, my father was touched then he cried. He felt happy. This was lovely day, my father was very happy as he didn’t expect this would happen, he felt that we have grown up and hopelly we can always celebrate this kind of occasions

Margaret Atwoods Short Story Happy Endings Free Essay Example, 1000 words

Erica Davis analysis of Happy Endings can be seen as accurate, especially as it pulls apart each version of a happy ending, showing how Atwood plays with different fictional plots when it comes to tales of romance and the so-called happy endings. Davis shows how each scenario has traces of the original scenario, the one in which a happy ending is all that is evident, yet they are riddled with conflict. She goes on to point out that these five other scenarios merely show filler, or the middle, of what could possibly be the first scenario. Everyone could end up with happily ever after and then they will die. Davis says, These boys and girls then slowly disintegrate until we have nothing left but the same ending, no matter how happy the story was. It all comes down to inevitable death. As both Atwood and Davis point out, the beginnings of these stories are always the best. Nothing has yet to be ruined and the story still has the chance to please the reader. The beginning does not s et up much for the ending, so there is very little insight or foreshadow as to what the middle holds. We will write a custom essay sample on Margaret Atwoods Short Story Happy Endings or any topic specifically for you Only $17.96 $11.86/page The plot consists of a chain of events that, while making up the plot, still hold very little importance when it comes down to the ending of any story. Furthermore, she explains how writers really enjoy creating all of the stuff in the middle, even though it all gets to the same place an ending that most writers do not end up writing about death.

Analysis of the different entrepreneurial theories - Free Essay Example

Sample details Pages: 7 Words: 2140 Downloads: 5 Date added: 2017/06/26 Category Business Essay Type Analytical essay Did you like this example? Before I completed this module my idea of an entrepreneur was some one who had almost what you would call a super power for business. I saw them as these individuals that thought and approached issues in a radically different way from your average person, and saw things that no one did, or even could see when it came to making astute business and financial choices. They were those people that had the eureka type, light bulb moments on an almost daily business and came up with such fiendishly clever ideas for making successful business choices that mere mortals like myself may as well give up now. Don’t waste time! Our writers will create an original "Analysis of the different entrepreneurial theories" essay for you Create order After completing this module my idea of an entrepreneur has changed greatly. Although it is true that successful entrepreneurs certainly have a different way of approaching and identifying problems and opportunities they are still just normal people like everyone else. After watching the various different talking heads videos on web CT it helped me identify an entrepreneur as a normal person, they were just your average individuals that you meet everyday. For me this was very important in making the concept of entrepreneurship so much more accessible, it made it seem more like something I could actually relate to and maybe even achieve myself. This was very important in sparking my initial interest in the subject and from there I found that I enjoyed the module content and working together in a group to formulate a new business venture. This was a particularly rewarding aspect of the module, being able to sit down with a group of piers and be able to be creative an not be hemmed i n by a strict marking criteria were every box must be ticked, although there was a criteria that we did strive to meet, but it was much looser and allowed us some creative licence which was very enjoyable. If I was to undertake the task again I think I would be inclined to be even more daring with our proposal. Even though I am happy with our venture, not many risks were taken, we quickly assessed the assets we as a group possessed and based our venture plan around what was already available. I feel this caused us to play it safe some what with our venture selection. My misconceptions of what an entrepreneur actually is was further compounded when looking for a quote to begin this assignment with, because everybody loves a good quote to begin with, plus it eats up a few words! When looking through the list of web definitions most of them were more concerned with defining an entrepreneur as some one who assumes the risk for a new business, this is not what I believed an entreprene ur to be. I expected something more along the lines of, those with the creative vision to spot opportunities and gaps in a given market, and the drive and ability to exploit these opportunities (Leech, just there now!) My own quote is fairly accurate but the reality of being an entrepreneur is not nearly as glamorous as I believed it to be. It requires a massive investment of time, energy and capital from those undertaking any potential business ventures. The common consensus among the material I have researched and from what I have witnessed myself is that an entrepreneur is in fact some one who after identifying a niche or a market area that can be exploited has the resolve and work ethic to see their idea through to its fruition. Before I believed that identifying the area that could be exploited to expand a business into was that defining quality that separates entrepreneurs from the rest of us, but following my studies it appears that this is the easy part, and any one with a little knowledge and common sense can identify an opportunity to make money. What I believe sets an entrepreneur apart from the rest of us is that they actually have the drive and courage necessary to take these ideas and turn them into a business. Many people talk about doing something, but and entrepreneur actually does it. Entrepreneurship Application With regard to entrepreneurship and its application to current business practices, or even if it is indeed still applicable at all. The answer to this query would have to be a resounding yes. The current business climate has become one of caution and a reluctance to take risks. This is understandable considering the state of the economy over the last number of years, but now that the economy is in the early stages of recovery this is the ideal time for those who have fresh new ideas to exploit a market that is essentially rebuilding its self from the ground up. Like anything else it is much easier and safer to jump on the band wagon once it is safely rolling, but due to the situation we find our selves in currently there exists the potential, more so than any other time to be involved with a business from the ground floor, from its very conception. Now that our economy is beginning to pick up and money is once again beginning to flow potential investors will be once again looking f or new ventures with the potential to offer a considerable return on their investment. Due to the previous economic down turn investors will be less likely to put their capital into the same old markets as before, this is were the entrepreneur has the potential to entice investors with exciting new business ventures. There are situations were the entrepreneurial attitude is necessary, even essential. But there are also situations were the entrepreneurial instincts of an individual can be counter productive or in some cases destructive. Take for example a small business that is just starting out. In these early years it is vital that the business have a string leader with a clear vision if it is to succeed. This however tends to make those that are in charge, the initial entrepreneur, very involved with every aspect of the business. This is fine if the business remains small, but if it begins to grow this micro management culture is no longer practical. This can create problems wi thin a businesses management structure as entrepreneurs are generally very reluctant to delegate responsibility to others and so conflicts begin to arise. Take for example Apple Computers, co founders Steve Wozniak and Steve Jobs left and were fired respectively, after they had created one of the market leaders in the computer industry. This illustrates were the entrepreneurial attitude proved to be inappropriate. However in contradiction to this, Steve Jobs later returned to Apple sparking a massive surge in the companys profitability. However it appears that as a rule the entrepreneurial attitude is best suited to start up businesses that are getting of the ground. They require the drive and work ethic that a person with the entrepreneurial spirit brings. Some people ask the question, why dont more company employees act in an entrepreneurial fashion? There can be many reasons for this. The truth of the matter is that some people simply to not posses the inclination to question what is around them and consider different approaches to performing in the market their in. Many employees are happy to simply do what is required of them and leave it at that, these people will never produce entrepreneurial ideas and concepts. On the other hand many employees do have entrepreneurial ideas that in many cases could be of benefit to a business. However various different circumstances generally lead them to refrain from speaking out and voicing their ideas. This could be down to personal self consciousness, a fear of speaking out in case their ideas are not well received or people shoot them down and say they are absurd. Or in other cases employees are reluctant to express their ideas as they fear that perhaps those above them will think that they are questioning their management and that this may lead to some form of retribution or ill favour amongst the upper management. To combat this, an environment of supportive free thinking should be established within a busines s. This is not easily done, but if people see that the ideas of others are taken on board and encouraged, it will lead to them to be more open with their ideas which will in turn allow them to think in a more entrepreneurial manner. Many businesses, either consciously, or unconsciously seem to go out of their way to create an atmosphere or attitude within a company that almost seem to prevent entrepreneurial thinking among its employees. This is often not intended but a negative or overly cautious approach from management will undoubtedly filter through to a companys employees. There are other reasons for a business to not encourage their employees to be entrepreneurial, it may simply come down to a fear of losing valuable employees if they were to go of and develop their own business ventures, and even worse losing an employee that then goes on to create competition for the initial business, because the likely hood is that any employee leaving to pursue their own venture will li kely be in the same field, or similar. So there is certainly an underlying justification for those businesses that do not seem to encourage free thinking among their employees, but those with the true entrepreneurial drive will almost always pursue their goals at some stage. Case Study The entrepreneurial approach to business can have a powerful effect on how a company performs in both the profitability and productivity. This is clearly evident at the Apple Company and its relationship with co-founder Steve Jobs. Apple was founded in 1976 by Steve Jobs, Stephen Wozniak and Ronald Wayne. From its initial inception the company became hugely successful, becoming the first truly successful small computer provider. The company grew steadily until they began to hit trouble in the early 1980s; during this time Jobs position came into question. Following further poor sales Jobs was relieved of his position in the company in 1985. After the departure of Jobs Apple continued to be profitable for the next number of years, but during the 90s a series of failed products left Apple in the doldrums. Following the replacement of the CEO that had initially ousted Jobs in the 80s, Jobs found himself back at the company following Apples buy over of his new project company NeXT. Shortly after returning to Apple Jobs became CEO. Shortly after his appointment Apple released the iMac which is widely considered as the product that turned around the fortunes of the ailing company. A string of widely commercially successful products then followed, including the iPod and iPhone. The dramatic turn around in Apples fortunes can be attributed in no small part to the influence and leadership style of Steve Jobs. His entrepreneurial instincts appear to be second to none and he has help Apple to successfully navigate their way through all the changes in trends, and in many ways set trends in popular must have gadgets and technology over the past 12 years. Jobs entrepreneurial style was clearly illustrated during a keynote speech he delivered in 2007, he is quoted as saying, Theres an old Wayne Gretzky quote that I love. I skate to where the puck is going to be, not where it has been. And weve always tried to do that at apple. Since the very beginning and we always wi ll The above quote clearly illustrates jobs entrepreneurial approach toward business. This case study clearly demonstrates how having individuals with strong entrepreneurial instincts can be of benefit, it also shows how a company can suffer when this important element is removed. Apple is also a testament to the continuing success of this entrepreneurial attitude as they continue to be an industry leader with the hotly anticipated launch of their next must have gadget the iPad. Conclusion During the course of this module my understanding of what an entrepreneur actually is has changed greatly, from my initial naive view that an entrepreneur was some one that possessed almost extraordinary business abilities to the more realistic view that a entrepreneur is simply some one that is prepared to take a risk and more importantly, work hard to achieve it. It is more about being single minded and focusing on your goals rather than some kind of God given gift or luck. During the group work and formulation of a new venture I learnt much about the intricacies and demands of establishing a business, working with others on such an unstructured and free flowing project was also interesting as it was more representative of a real life situation were people are not so reigned in by meeting strict university criteria. All in all the entrepreneurship module has been an interesting learning experience.